Striped catfish

FAO Cultured Aquatic Species Info

Link Striped catfish

Scientific Name:
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus

Authority:
(Sauvage 1878)

Common Name:
Striped catfish

LAUNCH GALLERY

Quick Facts

DISTRIBUTION AND BIOLOGY

Striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage), also known as river catfish and sutchi catfish, in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, is one of the fastest growing species used in aquaculture. In the wild, the natural distribution of the species was restricted to a small geographical area in Vietnam, Thailand, Lao, PDR and Cambodia in the Mekong and Phraya River basins. In recent decades, striped catfish has been translocated for aquaculture to Bangladesh, India, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and many more countries.

Striped catfish is benthopelagic, typically living within the ranges of pH 6.5-7.5 and 22-26 °C.The species is a large, fecund, fast growing omnivore, feeding primarily on algae, plants, zooplankton, insects, fruits, crustaceans, and fish.

AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES

Wild populations of striped catfish face threats from over-exploitation, habitat degradation including changes in water quality and flow, and fragmentation of river habitat. Wild striped catfish was once an important fishery and food source in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam but is in serious decline.

Having been introduced widely outside its native range for aquaculture, farmed striped catfish is the third most important freshwater aquaculture species.

Three production systems dominate in striped catfish farming: ponds, cages and net pens. Striped catfish are mostly produced at a large-scale from large ponds having depth over 2 m. In comparison with ponds, cages allow higher fish densities and have a higher productivity. The density of cages is high in areas where the water current is strong.

Production rates are very variable depending on whether farming technology is extensive, semi-intensive or intensive, and the location of farms and inputs used. The costs of feed dominate the variable costs of production. With good quality feed, however, striped catfish farming is profitable when the market is not saturated and the prices not too low.

Although largely practiced as monoculture, polyculture with carps, tilapia and prawn has also been reported profitable.

As captive breeding developed, aquaculture of striped catfish expanded, particularly in Vietnam and to lesser extent in Thailand and Cambodia, taking advantage of prolific spawning producing relatively large numbers of larvae that are easily harvested from flowing rivers, ponds, tanks and cages. Now the availability of captive breeding technology has alleviated pressure on wild stocks and fish production is booming, but long term broodstock management is still a work in progress. Striped catfish farming lacks a continuous research agency or industry led breed improvement program such as occurs for other major aquaculture species. Vietnam is starting on genetic improvement programmes, including for salinity tolerant strains.

SUSTAINABILITY

Striped catfish wild populations in their native range are listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as it is declining fast in the water of its origin. As a result, the species in the wild mainly persists from escapee or semi-captive populations.

Sustainable farming of striped catfish depends on good management of in-pond farming waste. Expanding farming and intensification, without following BMPs, can lead to accumulation of large amounts of organic waste in the pond bottom. This waste cannot be utilized by the phytoplankton and its oxidation depletes the dissolved oxygen deep in pond bottom soils, forming toxic metabolites thereby contributing greatly to deteriorating water quality and incidence of diseases.

To overcome these problems and satisfying international markets requirements on for fish quality, striped catfish consumers and producers are expected to become more aware of whether the producers are applying sustainable production methods utilising Best Management Practices (BMP). These methods start with managing the pond environment to reduce pathogenic bacteria loads, thus reducing fish diseases and accelerating removal of waste compounds. Early trial results have indicated encouraging benefits of recirculating aquaculture systems to improve sustainability of striped catfish production.

VALUE CHAINS

Striped catfish is one of the three top consumed freshwater fish types (after carps and tilapia) having extensive supply chains and markets covering over 130 countries in US, Europe and Asia. In Vietnam, most production is exported, but in other producing countries striped catfish is consumed on the domestic market. The striped catfish from Vietnam has become an affordable “white fish” in the Western world, and it is acceptable on the huge global market for cheap white fish.

FOOD: NUTRITIONAL AND SAFETY ASPECTS

Pangasius species have a high level of protein (17-18% wet weight), and low to moderate fat content, the amount and composition of which is influenced by the feed used.

Whitefish fillets produced from striped catfish are suited to modern production technologies. However, intensive production methods and international trade scrutiny and competition have raised some environmental and product quality issues. Despite claims in some countries that striped catfish fillets are not safe to eat, however, this has been countered by scientific studies.

ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE

Striped catfish farms can develop water quality problems from high stocking density, increased feeding rates and intake of polluted water. The discharge of polluted pond effluent also degrades the receiving environment. Such water pollution of open water used by other farms and users ultimately leads to disease outbreaks.

Sediment depositions on the pond bottom degrade water quality and reduce growth of fish. Large amounts of bottom-decomposed mud sometimes become responsible for creating off-flavor, the production of different harmful gases and oxygen depletion in the pond. Therefore, Vietnamese producers use deep ponds (>3 m) and remove sediments during the production cycle using special equipment and workers.

Striped catfish catch and aquaculture create several biodiversity issues within its natural habitat and in new areas where it is introduced for aquaculture. Sustaining biodiversity is usually seen as a lesser need compared to rapid economic development. Unregulated culture of striped catfish has caused concern to environmental safety and warrants a much more cautious and regulatory approach.

Tropical water temperatures result in faster fish growth however climate related temperature anomalies (higher than long term average air temperatures and an increased frequency of hot days and nights) and precipitation anomalies (likely increases in the frequency and intensity of heavy rainfall events on one hand, and a prolonged absence of precipitation on the other) adversely affect aquaculture productivity. The combined impact of sea level rise, changes in the upstream freshwater flow, and tidal regime on salinity intrusion due to climate change also affects striped catfish farming owing to shrinkage of the freshwater zone.

Under climate change, environmental parameters most likely to affect striped catfish are increased temperature variation, precipitation, salt-water intrusion and sea level rise. In the Mekong Delta, climate change is expected to increase salinity, extend salinity intrusions in the main catfish farming provinces and increase flooding risk in central and upstream Vietnam provinces.

Sustainability

Sustainable farming of striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) depends, among other factors, on good management of in-pond farming waste. Intensification, i.e. higher densities and feeding, if not well managed, can lead to large amounts of organic waste accumulating at the pond bottom. This waste cannot be utilized by the phytoplankton and its oxidation depletes the dissolved oxygen deep in pond bottom soils, forming toxic metabolites. This deteriorates water quality, reduces fish growth and contributes to disease outbreaks.

To overcome these problems and satisfy international markets, striped catfish consumers and producers are becoming more aware of sustainable production methods utilising Best Management Practices (BMP) for managing the pond environment by reducing pathogenic bacteria loads, reducing fish diseases and accelerating removal of waste compounds.

IUCN REDLIST STATUS AND OTHER LISTINGS

Striped catfish is a major aquaculture species in its original native range in the Lower Mekong Countries and in countries to which it has been introduced for culture (see PRODUCTION).

Striped catfish wild populations in its native range are Endangered http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/180689/0. Adults became rare in the 1980s and are only present now in some small protected areas in the Chao Phraya (Thailand), the species having been extirpated from the Mekong in Thailand due to overfishing of adults. Generally, in the wild, the species only persists from escapee or semi-captive populations.

AQUACULTURE

Intensive culture of striped catfish exploiting its rapid growth, omnivorous diet, tolerance of low dissolved oxygen and white flesh has made the species very profitable. Next to small farms, large aquaculture operations have emerged. Large scale operations integrate seed, nursery, grow-out and processing systems, but most large processors also rely on fresh supplies of pangasius catfish from small-scale farming operations to supplement their own production.

STATUS OF FARMING AND IMPACTS OF AQUACULTURE

Striped catfish aquaculture has succeeded in the Mekong Delta and elsewhere where the species has been introduced but it faces risks and challenges from pollution and overexploitation of the environment, diseases, climate changes, including salt-water intrusion and market requirements for higher quality product. As a major industry, it is also expected to meet societal and consumer demands for sustainable and just production practices.

Intensification of striped catfish culture can lead to water deterioration in ponds and tanks, environmental and disease problems [see ENVIRONMENT & CLIMATE]. Socio-technical regulations regarding the environment, therefore, have become necessary. Quality standards and culture certification are becoming trade-offs between consumers’ demands for sustainable products and producers’ efforts to contain costs.

INTERNATIONAL CERTIFICATES FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF AQUACULTURE

To meet international market requirements, an increasing number of striped catfish producers have been forced to follow at least one of the certification schemes recognized by international markets to incorporate environmental and social sustainability practices in aquaculture. To date, however, the environmental benefit of applying certification schemes to pangasius production has not been assessed. Three international certification schemes are used currently for striped catfish farming and processing sites.

Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) certificate (Link)

The ASC certificate is the most widely recognized for striped catfish, having developed from the Pangasius Aquaculture Dialogue (PAD) initiated by the World Wildlife Fund. Water use, feed and water quality, i.e., pond effluent management, are the key issues in achieving Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) certification. With ASC certified pangasius products, Vietnamese pangasius exporters expect to become more competitive in export markets.

The ASC certiﬁcation scheme is considered a useful approach for determining adequate environmental sustainability, especially concerning emissions in intensive Pangasius production. However, further improvements duly vetted by the farmers in intensive Pangasius production are needed to inspire the greater uptake of certiﬁcation schemes by making the certification more affordable, farmer-oriented and achievable; and to reduce overfeeding and the share of (domestic) ﬁshmeal in feeds, as these have a high environmental burden.

Global GAP (Link)

Global GAP certification for striped catfish (pangasius) follows the Global GAP Aquaculture Standard that requires seafood products to be produced in a way that reduces detrimental environmental impacts, including the utilization of chemicals. It also requires a responsible move to ensure workers ‘health, safety and welfare’. Core elements of Global GAP certification address food security, occupational safety in production processes and aspects of environmental protection.

Best Aquaculture Practice (BAP) certificate

This scheme is conductedSTRIPED CATFISH: SUSTAINABILITY Sustainable farming of striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) depends, among other factors, on good management of in-pond farming waste. Intensification, i.e. higher densities and feeding, if not well managed, can lead to large amounts of organic waste accumulating at the pond bottom. This waste cannot be utilized by the phytoplankton and its oxidation depletes the dissolved oxygen deep in pond bottom soils, forming toxic metabolites. This deteriorates water quality, reduces fish growth and contributes to disease outbreaks.

REGULATIONS AT NATIONAL LEVELS

ASC certification has become the main sustainability certification scheme for pangasius. In 2018, approximately 50 pangasius producers, including the major companies, are ASC-certified as the certification scheme has already become a buyer requirement for large retail and food service companies. International retailers are an important driving force behind the demand for certified fish. Vietnam striped catfish farms are required to meet national standards for hygiene and veterinary conditions and to be in compliance with following Vietnamese regulations on farming and environmental practices (VASEP link).

Amongst other Asian countries, India has developed standards, protocols and guidelines of pangasius culture.

WILD HARVEST FISHERIES

Wild caught river catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) from the Mekong River have been an extremely popular food fish in Viet Nam for centuries. However, the developments that have produced impressive increases in cultured production of river catfish over the last two decades has neglected the wild fishery that is now small and its resource based diminished.

The capture of juveniles and fry to supply aquaculture has been overtaken by hatchery rearing.

The population structure of the wild resource exhibited high genetic diversity with five sub-populations identified occupying the diverse habitats of its natural range. Up to a decade ago, the impact of escapees on wild populations were not of concern as the genetic structure and diversity of cultured striped catfish stocks did not diverge from those in the wild. This will likely change when genetic improvement becomes more prevalent in aquaculture of the species.

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GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

Note: Details of all sources are given in References below.

For IUCN Red List Status and other listings see: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/180689/0, Trong and colleagues (2002) and Vidthayanon & Hogan (2011).

For status of farming and impacts of aquaculture, see: Bosma and colleagues (2009), Anh and colleagues (2010a), Anh and colleagues (2010b), Rico and Vanden Brink (2014), and Rico and colleagues (2015). On diseases, see Phan and colleagues (2009) and Le and Cheong (2010). On climate changes, including salt-water intrusion, see De Silva and Soto (2009) and Anh and colleagues (2014). On market requirements for higher quality product, see Murk and colleagues (2016).

On tradeoffs between consumer standards and producers needs to contain costs, see Neda (2014) and Cordula and Schulze-Ehlersb (2018).

On the environmental benefits of certification, see Pham and colleagues (2016b).

For additional information on Aquaculture Stewardship Council Certification see: Nhu and colleagues (2016), Belton and colleagues (2011), Anh and colleagues (2011), Beukers and colleagues (2013) and Trang and colleagues (2016).

On regulations at national level in Vietnam see VASEP, Pham and colleagues (2016a) and Tran (2018). For India national level regulations see Singh and Lakra (2012).

For wild harvest fisheries for striped catfish, see Vidthayanon and Hogan (2011). On the capture of juveniles and fry to supply aquaculture, see Poulsen and colleagues (2008). On populations structure in the wild see Poulsen and colleagues (2008), and on concerns with escapees from aquaculture see Na-Nakorn and Moeikum (2009).

REFERENCES

Anh P.T., C. Kroeze, S.R. Bush, A.P. Mol. 2010a. Water pollution by Pangasius production in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: causes and options for control. Aquac. Res., 42 (1) (2010), pp. 108-128.
Anh, PT. 2010b. Mitigating water pollution in Vietnamese aquaculture production and processing industry. The case of pangasius and shrimp. Research school for Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment. Wageningen Wageningen University. 193 p. Link
Anh LN, Vinh HD, Bosma R, Verreth J, Leemans R, De Silva SS. 2104. Simulated impacts of climate change on current farming locations of striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus; Sauvage) in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Ambio. 2014;43(8):1059–1068. doi: 10.1007/s13280-014-0519-6.
ASC (Aquaculture Stewardship Council). 2019. ASC pangasius standard. https://www.asc-aqua.org/what-we-do/our-standards/farm-standards/the-pangasius-standard/ accessed 15 Mar 2019
Belton, B., Haque, M. M., Little, D. C. and Sinth, L. X. 2011. Certifying Catfish in Vietnam and Bangladesh: Who will make the grade and will it matter? Food Policy, 36: 289-299.
Bosma, R., H., C.T. Hanh, J. Potting, & P.A. Dung (2009). Environmental Impact Assessment of the Pangasius Sector in the Mekong Delta. Wageningen, Wageningen University Wageningen.
Cordula, H and B Schulze-Ehlersb. 2018. Consumer attitudes and preferences towards pangasius and tilapia: The role of sustainability certification and the country of origin. Appetite 127 (2018) 171–181.
De Silva, S.S. and Soto, D. (2009). Climate change and aquaculture: potential impacts, adaptation and mitigation. InK. Cochrane, C. De Young, D. Soto and T. Bahri (eds). Climate change implications for fisheries and aquaculture: overview of current scientific knowledge. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No.530. Rome, FAO. pp.151-212. http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i0994e/i0994e00.htm
Le and Chong (2010)
Murk A. J., Ivonne M. C., M. Rietjens and Simon R. Bush (2016). Perceived versus real toxicological safety of pangasius catfish: a review modifying market perspectives, Reviews in Aquaculture, 10(1), 123-134.
Na-Nakorn, U and T Moeikum. 2009. Genetic diversity of domesticated stocks of striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage 1878), in Thailand: relevance to broodstock management regimes. Aquaculture, 297:70-77.
Neda T. (2014). Certified standards and vertical coordination in aquaculture: The case of pangasius from Vietnam. Aquaculture 433 (2014) 235–246.
Nhu, Trang T., Thomas Schaubroeck, Patrik J.G. Henriksson, RoelBosma, Patrick Sorgeloos and Jo Dewulf (2016). Environmental impact of non-certified versus certified (ASC) intensive Pangasius aquaculture in Vietnam, a comparison based on a statistically supported LCA, Environmental Pollution, 219, 156-165.
Pham Thi Anh Ngoc, Miranda P. M. Meuwissen, Le Cong Tru, Roel H. Bosma, Johan Verreth & Alfons Oude Lansink (2016a). Economic feasibility of recirculating aquaculture systems in pangasius farming, Aquaculture Economics & Management, 20:2, 185-200, DOI:10.1080/13657305.2016.1156190200, DOI:10.1080/13657305.2016.1156190
Pham Thi Anh Ngoc, Miranda P.M. Meuwissen, Tru Cong Le, Roel H. Bosma, Johan Verreth, Alfons Oude Lansink (2016b). Adoption of recirculating aquaculture systems in large pangasius farms: A choice experiment. Aquaculture 460 (2016) 90–97.
Phan and colleagues (2009)
Poulsen, A., Griffiths, D., Nam, S. & Nguyen, T.T. 2008. Capture-based aquaculture of Pangasiid catfishes and snakeheads in the Mekong river basin. In A. Lovatelli & P.F. Holthus (eds.), Capture-based aquaculture. Global overview. pp. 83-105. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 508. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Rico A., P.J. Van den Brink (2014). Probabilistic risk assessment of veterinary medicines applied to four major aquaculture species produced in Asia Sci. Total Environ., 468–469 (2014), pp. 630-641.
Rico, A,M. A., T.M. Phu, D.T.T. Huong, N.T. Phuong, P.J. Van den Brink (2015). Ecological risk assessment of the antibiotic enrofloxacin applied to Pangasius catfish farms in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Chemosphere, 119 (2015), pp. 407-414.
Singh A.K. and Lakra W.S. (2012). Culture of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus into India: Impacts and present Scenario. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 15(1):19-26 IISN 1028-8880 / DOI 10.3923/pjbs.2012.19.26.
Tran Thi Huong (2018). Critical factors and enablers of food quality and safety compliance risk management in the Vietnamese seafood supply chain. International Journal of Managing Value and Supply Chains (IJMVSC) Vol. 9, No. 1, March 2018 10.5121/ijmvsc.2018.9101 1
Trong, Trinh Quoc, Nguyen Van Hao and Don Griffiths. 2002. Status of Pangasiid aquaculture in Viet Nam. MRC Technical Paper No. 2, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 16 pp. ISSN: 1683- 1489.
Vidthayanon, C. & Hogan, Z. 2011. Pangasianodon hypophthalmus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T180689A7649971. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T180689A7649971.en.

Production

SPECIES IMPORTANCE

Pangasianodon hypophthalmus is a fast-growing fish, which has recently become a very popular food fish and valuable aquaculture species in South-East Asia.Wild stocks were native to Cambodia; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Thailand; Viet Nam (Lower Mekong River Basin countries) and, with the upswing in aquaculture since 2000, the species has been introduced to many other countries, including Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, China, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia), Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan.

Pangasius catfishes, of which the striped catfish is the most cultured species, is the third most important freshwater fish group within world aquaculture production, after the carp species and tilapias. Striped catfish has one of the largest single species based farming systems, restricted to a small geographical area. Estimated world production of Pangasius catfishes is approaching 2 million tonnes, although data are reported in various species of general categories for freshwater fishes.

Vietnam is the largest producer of striped catfish, currently producing more than 1 million tonnes annually. Striped catfish is also cultured in Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Thailand.

India and Bangladesh are increasing their production. In Bangladesh, the production exceeded 0.4 MT while in India it has gone up to 0.7 MT.

PRODUCTION IN CAPTIVITY

Striped catfish is one of the fastest growing aquaculture species. Its per unit area culture production supersedes the production per unit for any form of farming.

Pangasius production was initially based in sanitation ponds, netted pens and river cages, and its aquaculture development, has been on a steep upward trend since artificial breeding was mastered. At present almost all production is from aquaculture; catch from the wild is minimal and fragmented due to reduced natural populations.

Today striped catfish production is highly intensive especially for pond stocking densities compared with other pond systems of fish culture. Cage, pond and pen culture systems are used for striped catfish aquaculture production and farm yields range from 70.0 to 850 tonne/ha/crop.

Fish are harvested at size 0.6-1.5 kg, after a grow-out period of 6–7 months after stocking. Water consumption per tonne of fish produced ranges from 0.7–59.7ML/tonne.

Although largely practiced as monoculture, polyculture with carps, tilapia and prawn has also been reported profitable. In Pangasius grow-out systems of co-culture with Indian and Chinese carps and tilapia, these species utilize nutrients from waste and uneaten feed which would otherwise be lost, help to maintain good water quality, and increase pond productivity and farm income. The six most popular species used in pangasius poly-culture production in the Mekong River Delta are Pangasianodon hypophthalmus, Cyprinus carpio, Helostoma temminckii, Barbus choloensis, Oreochromis niloticus and Osphronemus goramy.

Production Systems

Three production systems dominate in pangasius farming: ponds, cages and net pens. Striped catfish are mostly produced in small-scale ponds. Ponds 1.5 to 2 m deep are necessary for the pangasius to grow. In comparison with ponds, cages allow higher fish densities and have a higher productivity. The density of cages is high in areas where the water current is strong.

Maximum fish density at any time for ponds and pens is 38 kg/m2 and for cages 80 kg/m3. Net pens are harvested by seine-netting on spring low tides. Harvest is easier in cages compared to that in ponds.

The production costs and returns of striped catfish aquaculture depend on the three different farming systems and whether production technology is extensive, semi-intensive or intensive.

Production variability is reported from farm to farm and location-to-location because of differences in biophysical factors, input use and socioeconomic conditions that differ among the farm sizes.

Responding to sustainability concerns, striped catfish production in flow-through tanks and in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) has been considered to overcome problems of methane and to enable collecting compost from solid wastes from ponds. Results obtained so far have indicated encouraging benefits of RAS to improve sustainability of striped catfish. Adopting RAS could be an important step to achieving compliance with sustainability certification and disease control. The cost and benefits, however, are yet to be established. Survival rate also being an aspect of sustainability, a first step could be the use of RAS for nursery to decrease mortality rates which are still high during the earlier production stages.

Feeds

Feed and feeding play important roles in the sustainable development of pangasius aquaculture. The cost of feed dominates the variable costs of production. With good quality feed, striped catfish farming is profitable irrespective of the level of intensification of aquaculture i.e., extensive, semi-intensive and intensive, and in all three farming systems, of market prices are as usual.

With the existing technology, pangasius farmers could increase fish production significantly by using resources efficiently, feeding judiciously and improving oxygen content in the deeper layers of the ponds (also see SUSTAINABILITY).

Breeding

Catfish aquaculture in Vietnam has evolved from extensive systems using wild caught seed to intensified farming systems that are entirely dependent on hatchery-produced seed. The understanding of the genetic resources of P. hypophthalmus is currently very limited. Broodstock management aspects vary widely among striped catfish hatchery operators; procurement, usage and discarding of individual fish are done on an ad hoc manner, based on the experience of the operators. Many striped catfish hatcheries maintain a large number of fish as potential broodstock but use only a small proportion for seed production in a given year.

A concerted effort is needed to put into place long-term broodstock management plans using modern genetic knowledge. A recent study revealed no genetic differentiation between hatchery and contemporary wild populations of striped catfish. Vietnam had a national breeding programs but funding was discontinued. Existing stocks could be used to put into place a scientifically based broodstock management plan, and to use such stocks for genetic improvement through selective breeding for traits that are desirable.

WILD HARVEST PRODUCTION

Production from wild harvest is negligible (see SUSTAINABILITY) and fragmented due to reduced natural populations

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GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

Note: Details of all sources are given in References below.

For world production, see: FAO (2018), Phan Lam and colleagues (2009). For production in India and Bangladesh, see Hazrat Ali and colleagues (2013) and Shamsuzzaman and colleagues (2017); for India see Singh and Lakra (2012) and Belton and colleagues (2017).

For production in captivity generally see: De Silva and Phuong (2011) and Belton and colleagues (2017). For farm yields see Phan Lam and colleagues (2009) and Hazrat Ali and colleagues (2013). For harvest, growth details and water consumption see Phan Lam and colleagues (2009) and Hazrat Ali and colleagues (2013). For mono and polyculture systems see Islam and colleagues (2008), Hazrat Ali and colleagues (2013), Ahmed and Hasan (2010) and De Silva and Phuong (2011).

For more details of each of the main production systems, for ponds see World Bank, (2006), Phan Lam and colleagues (2009) De Silva and Phuong (2011). For cages see Islam and colleagues (2006), De Silva and Phuong (2011), Phan Lam and colleagues (2009), The Pangasius Aquaculture Dialogue (2010) and Hazrat Ali and colleagues (2013). For comparative analyses of the different systems and intensities of production, see: Phan Lam and colleagues (2009) De Silva and Phuong (2011) and Hazrat Ali and colleagues (2013).

For production variability see: Phan Lam and colleagues (2009), Chau and colleagues (2012), Chau and colleagues (2013), Hazrat Ali and colleagues (2013), Khan and colleagues (2017) and Belton and colleagues (2017).

For production in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) see Pham and colleagues (2016a), Pham and colleagues (2016b), Nguyen (2016) and Kumar and Engle (2016).

For feed and feeding see Chau and colleagues (2013), Sembrouck and colleagues (2009), Ahmed and Hasan (2010), Chau and colleagues (2012).

For striped catfish breeding see Bui and colleagues (2010), Ha and colleagues (2009) and Nguyen (2009).

REFERENCES

Ahmed Nesar and Mohammad R Hasan (2010) Economics of sutchi catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) aquaculture under three different farming systems in rural Bangladesh. Aquaculture Research https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2010.02549.x
Belton Ben, Arun Padiyar, Ravibabu G, Gopal Rao K (2017). Boom and bust in Andhra Pradesh: Development and transformation in India's domestic aquaculture value chain. Aquaculture 470,196-206.
Bui, M.T., Phan, T.L., Ingram, A.I., Nguyen, T.T.T, Gooley, J.G., Nguyen, V.H., Nguyen, T.P. & De Silva S.S. 2010. Seed production practices of striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmusin the Mekong Delta region, Vietnam. Aquaculture, 306(1–4): 92–100.
Chau T Da, T. Lundh, JE Lindberg (2012) Evaluation of local feed resources as alternatives to fish meal in terms of growth performance, feed utilisation and biological indices of striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) fingerlings. Aquaculture, Volumes 364–365, 150-156
Chau T Da, Le T Hung, Håkan Berg, Jan E Lindberg (2013). Evaluation of potential feed sources, and technical and economic considerations of small scale commercial striped catfish (Pangasius hypothalamus) pond farming systems in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Aquaculture Research 44(3):247-238. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2011.03048.x
De Silva, S.S., & Phuong, N.T. (2011) Striped catfish farming in the Mekong delta, Vietnam: A tumultuous path to a global success. Reviews in Aquaculture, 3(2), 45–73. doi:10.1111/j.1753-5131.2011.01046.x
Ha HP, Nguyen TTT, Poompuang S, Na-Nakorn U (2009). Microsatellites revealed no genetic differentiation betweenhatchery and contemporary wild populations of striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage 1878) in Vietnam. Aquaculture 291: 154–160.
Hazrat Ali, Mohammad Mahfujul Haque1 & Ben Belton (2013). Striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus, Sauvage, 1878) aquaculture in Bangladesh: an overview. Aquaculture Research 44, 950–965
Islam Mohd Sherazul, Khandaker Anisul Huq and Mohd Anisur Rahman (2008). Polyculture of Thai pangus (Pangasius hypophthalmus, Sauvage 1878) with carps and prawn: a new approach in polyculture technology regarding growth performance and economic return. Aquaculture Research 39 (15): 1620-1627 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2008.02035.x
Islam MS, Rahman MM, Tanaka M. (2006). Stocking density positively influences the yield and farm profitability in cage aquaculture of sutchi catfish, Pangasius sutchi. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 22(5):441-445.
Kumar Ganesh and Engle Carole (2016). Economics of Intensively aerated Catfish Ponds. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society Vol 48 No 2, 320-332 doi: 101111/jwas.12385
Nguyen Nhut (2016). Improving sustainability of striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) farming in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam through recirculation technology, 180 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2016) With references, with summary in English. ISBN: 978-94-6257-919-4 DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.18174/394644
Nguyen Thuy T. T. (2009) Patterns of use and exchange of genetic resources of the striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage 1878). Reviews in Aquaculture 1, 224-231.
Nguyen Tien Thong, Max Nielsen, Eva Roth, Giap Van Nguyen & Hans Stubbe Solgaard (2016): The estimate of world demand for Pangasius catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus), Aquaculture Economics & Management, DOI:10.1080/13657305.2016.1261961
Pham Thi Anh Ngoc , Miranda P. M. Meuwissen , Le Cong Tru , Roel H. Bosma, Johan Verreth, and Alfons Oude Lansinka (2016b). Economic feasibility of recirculating aquaculture systems in pangasius farming. Aquaculture Economics & Management 20(2), 185–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13657305.2016.1156190
Pham, Cong Tru Le, Alfons Oude Lansink, and Miranda Meuwissen (2016a). Adoption of recirculating aquaculture systems in large pangasius farms: A choice experiment. Aquaculture 460 (2016) 90–97.
Phan Lam T., Tam M. Bui, Thuy T.T. Nguyen, Geoff J. Gooley, Brett A. Ingram, Hao V. Nguyen, Phuong T. Nguyen, Sena S. De Silva (2009). Current status of farming practices of striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Aquaculture 296: 227–236
Sembrouck Panel J, E Baras, J Subajia, L T Hung and M Legendre (2009) Survival, growth and food conversion of cultured larvae of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus, depending on feeding level, prey density and fish density. Aquaculture 294 (1-2): 52-59.
Shamsuzzaman Md. Mostafa, Mohammad Mahmudul Islam, Nusrat Jahan Tania, Md. Abdullah Al-Mamun, Partho Protim Barman, Xiangmin Xu, (2017). Fisheries resources of Bangladesh: Present status and future direction. Aquaculture and Fisheries 2, 145-156
Singh A.K. and Lakra W.S. (2012). Culture of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus into India: Impacts and present Scenario. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 15(1):19-26 IISN 1028-8880 / DOI 10.3923/pjbs.2012.19.26.
The Pangasius Aquaculture Dialogue, (2010). Better Management Practices for Pangasius Aquaculture, Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC), version 1.0., 61p
World Bank, (2006). Vietnam Development Report: Poverty, Hanoi, In Khoi Le N. D., 2011. Quality Management in the Pangasius Export Supply Chain in Vietnam.

Supply Chains

Pangasius is the third most consumed fish in the world in terms of quantity and is produced for the market on intensively managed farms. Currently, Vietnam accounts for over half of the global pangasius supply, with the remainder provided by India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and China. Vietnam alone exports striped catfish products to over 130 countries and territories.

POST HARVEST

Striped catfish is sold mainly whole and as fillets. Skinless and boneless frozen/chilled striped catfish fillets are the most common export product.

Fillets are graded by color, which can be white, pink or yellow; consumers prefer white fillets (Sang et al., 2009). Only white and light pink fillets are of export quality and these fetch a higher price.

The fillet colour of striped catfish produced in Mekong river cages is white, and in deep ponds with the high water turnover rate are predominantly white. Farmers would be willing to switch to less polluting farming systems, provided the colour grade of the fillet was maintained. Further development of markets could come from vertical integration and horizontal differentiation in diverse markets.

COMMON MARKET NAMES

The FAO names are: En - Striped catfish, Fr - Silure requin, Es - Tiburón pangasio. In Vietnam, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage) is locally known as “ca tra”, and commonly referred to as striped catfish, river catfish and sutchi catfish. In Bangladesh and India, it is called as pangas catfish.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE

Pangasius species have a high level of protein (17-18% wet weight), and low to moderate fat content, the amount and composition of which is influenced by the feed used (https://www.seafoodhealthfacts.org/description-top-commercial-seafood-items/pangasius). Despite claims in some countries that striped catfish fillets are not safe to eat, a review countered the claims on fillet safety and nutrition value.

TRADE AND MARKETS

Striped catfish provides dominantly white flesh and has strong domestic and export markets where it is grown. In Vietnam, most production is exported, but in other producing countries striped catfish is consumed on the domestic market.

Depending on the country, it is cost competitive on white fish export markets with lower value species such as tilapia and Alaskan Pollock. In some countries, notably India and Bangladesh, the local freshwater major carps (Labeo rohita and Catla catla) are preferred, except in cases were boneless flesh is preferred.

Vietnam is the largest producer and exporter of striped catfish, exporting whole frozen fish and fillets to more than 130 countries. In 2016, Latin America and Asia together accounted for nearly 50 percent of global pangasius imports (whole frozen and frozen fillets) with both regions demonstrating positive upward growth.

The largest market for Vietnamese pangasius was the USA which imported nearly a quarter of all Vietnamese exports, despite competition with tilapia in the international market and the USA anti-dumping duty and catfish inspection program that limited the number of eligible exporters. Approximately 90 percent of the striped catfish that enters the Latin American markets are frozen fillets, primarily supplied by Vietnam. The three largest Latin American markets are Mexico, Brazil and Colombia. In Asia, China has become the largest market for Vietnamese striped catfish, overtaking Thailand, and globally, overtaking USA. In Asia, Singapore, Japan and India are other Asian markets that show strong demand.

Despite having developed a modern production chain in which many producers have achieved international certification for such demanding markets as the EU and USA, the Vietnam industry still faces smear campaigns by foreign environmentalists and media, some going back more than a decade. Toxicological studies on pangasius fillets by European researchers refuted all the claims. To maintain the export markets, striped catfish producers need to ensure their fish meet sustainability standards, such as those of the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) or Global G.A.P.

The Vietnam Pangasius Association (VPA) [Link] has been working on improving quality and expanding export markets of striped catfish in international markets. It represents farming, processing and exporting commercial enterprises and other organizations. The non-governmental Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers (VASEP) [Link] has also developed measures to improve quality of the striped catfish industry. farming, processing and exporting pangasius commercial enterprises and other organizations.

EMPLOYMENT, SOCIAL FACTORS AND GENDER

Women play important roles in the striped catfish value chain in China, India, Thailand and Vietnam. Most of the pangasius production systems are small-scale and depend heavily on family labour, where the involvement of female hands and their contribution is great. Female roles, although identified as important, nevertheless are mainly supportive roles which facilitate the smooth functioning of the fishery value chains. In the modern value chain, women participate less than in the traditional value chain, due to poor access rights to assets, credit services, markets and information on new technology, consumer performances and export trade.

In Vietnam, thousands of women are employed in processing factories, most on low pay but nevertheless providing employment to predominantly poor women. Ten percent of the labour force of grow-out farms is women (earning slightly less than their male counterparts), and in general 90% of fish traders for domestic consumption are women. Women usually manage household income in Vietnam and so are expected to benefit when the farms prosper and enjoy a stable trading environment.

In Bangladesh, women are little involved in fish farming except close to the household and in marketing, the last, however is mainly done by men. Domestic consumers, such as women working as day labour and in the garment factories, are able to afford the fish.

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GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

For an overview see: Belton and Azad (2012), FAO (2014), Globefish (2016), Belton and colleagues (2017) and PRODUCTION.

For information on post harvest see Sang and colleagues (2009), Khoi (2011), Beukers and colleagues (2014), Phu and colleagues (2014) and Anh and colleagues (2017).

For nutritional value see https://www.seafoodhealthfacts.org/description-top-commercial-seafood-items/pangasius, Islam and colleagues (2012), Kulawik and colleagues (2016) and Murk and colleagues (2018).

For information on trade and markets, see MARD (2014a,b,c), FAO (2014), VASEP [Link], Dambrosio and colleagues (2016) and Anh and colleagues (2017).

On food safety see Murk and colleagues (2018). On standards for export see Belton and colleagues (2011a) and De Silva and Phuong (2011).

On employment, social factors and gender, for women’s contributions and roles in Vietnam see De Silva and Phuong (2011), Coles and Mitchell (2011), Hishamunda and colleagues (2014), Kruijssen and colleagues (2018), Tung and colleagues (2004). For women in Bangladesh see Apu (2014) and Belton and colleagues (2011b).

REFERENCES

Anh Tram, Thi Nguyen and Curtis M. Jolly, (2017). Macro-Economic and Product Challenges Facing Vietnamese the Pangasius Industry. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 26(36), 1-12 DOI: 10.1080/23308249.2017.1379948
Apu, N.A. 2014. Farmed fish value chain development in Bangladesh: Situation analysis and trends. WorldFish/ILRI Project Report. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute ( ILRI).
Belton B, M Karim, S Thilsted, KM Jahan, W Collis & M Phillips. 2011b. Review of Aquaculture and Fish Consumption in Bangladesh. Studies and Reviews 2011-53. The World Fish Center, Penang.
Belton B., Haque M.M., Sinh L.X. & Little D.C. 2011a. Certifying Pangasius in Vietnam and Bangladesh: who will make the grade and will it matter? Food Policy 36, 289–299.
Belton Ben, Arun Padiyar, Ravibabu G, Gopal Rao K (2017). Boom and bust in Andhra Pradesh: Development and transformation in India's domestic aquaculture value chain. Aquaculture 470,196-206.
Belton, B., Azad, A., 2012. The Characteristics and Status of Pond Aquaculture in Bangladesh. Aquaculture 358–359, 196–204.
Beukers, R., W. van der Pijl, & A.P. van Duijn (2014) Prospects for the Position of (ASC-certified) Pangasius in the EU Retail and Food Service Sector. Wageningen, LEI Wageningen UR.
Coles, C and J Mitchell (2011). Gender and agricultural value chains – a review of current knowledge and practice and their policy implications. ESA Working Paper No. 11-05 March 2011 Agricultural Development Economics Division 29pp. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations http://www.fao.org/3/a-am310e.pdf
Dambrosio, A., Normanno, G., storelli, A., Barone, G., Ioanna, F., Errico, L., Centoducati, G. and Storelli, M. M. (2016). Aspects of Vietnamese sutchi catfish (Pangasiushypophthalmus) frozen fillet quality: microbiological profile and chemical residues. Journal of Food Safety, 36(4), 532-536.
De Silva, SS & NT Phuong. 2011. Striped catfish farming in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: a tumultuous path to a global success Striped catfish farming in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: a tumultuous path to a global success. Reviews in Aquaculture 3:45-73.
FAO (2014). The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture: Opportunities and Challenges, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
GLOBEFISH, “Good pangasius demand amidst tight supplies,” in GLOBEFISH - Analysis and information on world fish trade, FAO, 2016.
Hishamunda, N., Bueno, P., Menezes, A.M., Ridler, N., Wattage, P., Martono, E., 2014. Improving Governance in Aquaculture Employment: A Global Assessment. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical paper No. 575. FAO, Rome (48pp). http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3128e.pdf
Islam Rafiquel, Dipak Kumar Paul, Atiqur Rahman, Tanzima Parvin, Dipa Islam and Abdus Sattar (2012). Comparative Characterization of Lipids and Nutrient Contents of Pangasius Pangasius and Pangasius Sutchi Available in Bangladesh. Journal of Nutrition and Food Science 2012, 2:2 DOI: 10.4172/2155-9600.1000130
Khoi Le N. D., (2011). Quality Management in the Pangasius Export Supply Chain in Vietnam, 283p.
Kruijssen, F, CL McDougall, IJM van Asseldonk. (2018). Gender and aquaculture value chains: A review of key issues and implications for research. Aquaculture 493, 328-337.
Kulawik, P., Migdał, W., Tkaczewska, J. and Özoğul, F., 2016. Assessment of color and sensory evaluation of frozen fillets from Pangasius catfish and Nile tilapia imported to European countries. International journal of food properties, 19(7), pp.1439-1446.
MARD, 2014a. Annual report of striped catfish production in Mekong delta, Vietnam. (in Vietnamese). 10 pp.
MARD, 2014b. Decision No 674/QĐ BNN-KHCN about research programs on increasing high quality for Vietnamese catfish culture and catfish products.,. Dated on 04/04/2014 (in Vietnamese). 13pp.
MARD, 2014c. National technical regulation on striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus Sauvage, 1878) culture farm in pond - conditions for veterinary hygiene, environmental protection and food safety. (in Vietnamese). 9 pp.
Murk Albertinka J., Ivonne M.C.M. Rietjens and Simon R. Bush (2018). Perceived versus real toxicological safety of pangasius catfish: a review modifying market perspectives. Reviews in Aquaculture 10, 123–134
Phu, T.M., Hien, T.T.T., Tien, T., Dao, N.L.A., 2014. Assessment of striped catfish fillet quality at different rearing areas. Scientific Journal of Cantho University. Special issue on Aquaculture and Fisheries 1, 15-21.
Sang, N.V., Thomassen, M., Klemetsdal, G., Gjøen, H.M., 2009. Prediction of fillet weight, fillet yield, and fillet fat for live river catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus). Aquaculture 288, 166-171.
Tung, NT, NVan Thanh and M Phillips. 2004. Policy Research – Implications of Liberalisation of Fish Trade for Developing Countries: A Case Study of Vietnam. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Background Paper.

Environment & Climate

Following the rapid development of striped catfish production first in the Mekong River delta, importing countries expressed public concerns on the environmental impact of farming and the impacts of the river water quality on product quality. Concerns on product quality of Vietnamese striped catfish have been dispelled by scientific analysis (see SUPPLY CHAINS & MARKETS).

IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT OF FARMING AND PROCESSING

Striped catfish farms can develop water quality problems from high stocking density, increased feeding rates and intake of polluted water. The discharge of polluted pond effluent also degrades the receiving environment. Such water pollution and self-pollution of farming operations ultimately leads to disease outbreaks.

Water quality

Water quality concerns have been most intensively studied in Vietnam where intensive production of striped catfish is carried out in open pond systems. Influent and effluent water sources are frequently shared and directly used by several adjacent grow-out farms. This has been linked to frequent disease outbreaks and high mortality rates.

Rapid expansion and intensification of striped catfish farming are often accompanied by excessive feeding and indiscriminate use of fish health chemicals and fertilizers that cause environmental problems such as eutrophication and aquatic pollution.

Unutilized feed, decomposed by microorganisms, degrades pond water quality. The environmental impact of striped catfish grow-out farming can be reduced by effectively managing sludge and by using feeds with lower feed conversion ratios and lower content of fishery products. In Bangladesh, farmers apply salt or lime to improve water quality, and need based change about a quarter of the pond water. In Vietnam, farmers increase both water exchange rate and pond sediment removal during the grow-out cycle. To overcome oxygen deficiency problem, some farmers apply oxygen promoters, and a zeolite (a microporous, aluminosilicate mineral used as an adsorbent and catalyst) in the pond to release toxic gases.

Effluent from semi-intensive or intensive striped catfish farms can pollute natural waters. Some parameters of the discharged water from some ponds exceed acceptable quality levels by a factor of three to five.

In the farming and processing of frozen fillets of striped catfish in the Mekong Delta, wastewater from fish ponds contributes 60-90% of the pollutant load in wastewater from the industry. The fish pond sludge and fish processing wastewater have a high pollutant content that can cause severe local environmental problems but overall striped catfish production produces less than 0.01% of the total suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorus loads in the Mekong Delta.

Water pollution and emissions can be reduced by more efficient use of inputs, cleaner production technologies, wastewater treatment plants at large farms and processing facilities, and low-cost options to optimise discharge and reuse of wastewater at small-scale farms.

To qualify for certification (see SUSTAINABILITY), farms and processing plants need to meet environmental standards, although the environmental benefits of applying certification schemes on striped catfish production have not been studied.

For environmentally sustainable striped catfish production and processing, the farmers and processors must be aware of the needs and technical options. Technologies that could help meet environmental and certification standards include water purification and recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS).

On farm water purification mayhelp enterprises fulfil the Aquaculture Stewardship Council requirements and may decrease environmental pollution, lower the occurrence of fish diseases, decrease fish mortality and reducethe use of fish medicines. RAS have been proposed to reduce waste discharge, improve fishpond water quality and help meet environmental regulations and certification standards, but the impacts on production and product quality are only now being investigated, e.g., at a pilot facility at Cai Be station in Tien Giang province.

Sediment

Biodiversity, other farmed species

Of the world’s tropical river floodplain ecosystems, the Mekong River supports rich biodiversity. The river is an integral part of the everyday life for almost the entire population of the basin. However, high demand for fisheries products, urban and industrial development, and floodplain changes have modified and are threatening the ecosystem and its biodiversity. Since the fishery exploits most of the available aquatic biodiversity in the Mekong, threats tofisheries and biodiversity are largely inseparable. Destructive and unsustainable fishing activities and introductions and transfers of living aquatic organisms are some of the biodiversity issues. However, “sustaining biodiversity” is often seen a lesser need compared to rapid economic development. Unregulated culture of striped catfish has caused concern to environmental safety and warrants a much more cautious and regulatory approach.

IMPACTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON FARMING

Striped catfish is one of the most successful aquaculture species due to the relative ease of its culture. For quality fish, suitable production environments have the following ranges of environmental conditions:

water temperatures 26-30°C
dissolved O2 5-6 mg/l
optimum pH 6-7.6
turbidity 10-15cm
total alkalinity 15-25.7mg/l
total ammonia nitrogen 0.7-1mg/l
salinity
total hardness 15.3-35.5mg/l
chloride <550mg/l

Although the Mekong River is polluted by pesticides and veterinary treatment chemicals, in addition to pollution from intensified striped catfish farming, striped catfish have been assessed and reported to be safe to eat.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON FARMING

Climate

Climate related temperature anomalies (higher than long term average air temperatures and an increased frequency of hot days and nights) and precipitation anomalies (likely increases in the frequency and intensity of heavy rainfall events on one hand, and a prolonged absence of precipitation on the other) adversely affect aquaculture productivity. The combined impact of sea level rise, changes in the upstream freshwater flow, and tidal regime on salinity intrusion due to climate change affects striped catfish farming owing to shrinkage of the freshwater zone.

Climate change

Major factors of climate change that may impact striped catfish aquaculture are temperature, sea level rise, monsoon rain patterns and extreme events.

Under climate change, environmental parameters most likely to affect striped catfish are increased temperature variation, precipitation, salt-water intrusion and sea level rise. Though farmers have started to adapt to extreme weather events, their social and economic options are limited, thus rendering them vulnerable to climate variability. In the Mekong Delta, climate change is expected to increase salinity, extend salinity intrusions in the main catfish farming provinces and increase flooding risk in upstream and central provinces. This situation has pushed Vietnam to start the development of a salinity resistant strain of catfish which raises questions as to whether salinity resistance can be achieved without sacrificing growth and overall yield.

IMPACTS OF FARMING ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Greenhouse gas emissions from striped catfish farming and fish processing contribute to climate change.

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GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

For general information on water quality and its links to disease and fish mortality see: Phan and colleagues (2009), Dung and colleagues (2008), Ly and colleagues (2009).

On water quality impacts from inappropriate intensification see: Giang and colleagues (2008), Bosma and colleagues (2011), Anka and colleagues (2013) and Anh and colleagues (2010). On management options in Vietnam see Bosma and colleagues (2011), in Bangladesh Anka, and colleagues (2013). On effluent pollution see Belton and colleagues (2011), Huysveld and colleagues (2013) and Pham (2010).

On wastewater pollution from farming and processing in the Mekong Delta, see Pham and colleagues (2010) and Bosma and colleagues (2011). On potential solutions to water effluent treatment see Pham and colleagues (2010) and Van Rijn (2013). On meeting environmental standards see Trang and colleagues (2016), Martins and colleagues (2010), Bui and colleagues (2013) and Mohammed and colleagues (2017). On water purification technologies see Pham and colleagues (2010), On recirculating systems see Martins and colleagues (2010), Van Rijn (2013) and Pham and colleagues (2016).

On sediment issues see Hossain and colleagues (2016).

On biodiversity impacts see Kottelat and Whitten (1996), Poulsen and colleagues (2001), Poulsen and colleagues (2008), Nguyen and colleagues (2017), Claridge and colleagues (1997) and Van Zalinge and colleagues (2000).

On introductions and transfers of living aquatic organisms see Kottelat and Whitten (1996), Welcomme and Vidthayanon (2000) and Singh and Lakra (2012).

On impacts of the environment on striped catfish farming see the following references that together define the best environmental conditions for farming: Debnath and colleagues (2006), Ayson (2008), Giang and colleagues (2008) and Mohammed and colleagues (2017).

For the food safety of striped catfish for humans, see Anh and colleagues (2010), Nhu and colleagues (2015) and Murk and colleagues (2018).

For climate see FAO (2017), Nguyen and colleagues (2017), Trieu and colleagues (2015) and Nguyen and colleagues (2017).

For climate change see De Silva and Soto (2009), Anh and colleagues (2014), Nguyen and colleagues (2014), Nguyen and colleagues (2015), Nguyen and colleagues (2011), Do and colleagues (2012) and Murk and colleagues (2016).

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Pham T. Anh, Kroeze C, Bush SR, Mol APJ (2010) Water pollution by pangasius production in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: causes and options for control. Aquaculture Research 42: 108–128.
Pham Thi Anh, Simon R. Bush, Arthur P.J. Mol and Carolien Kroeze, (2011). The Multi-Level Environmental Governance of Vietnamese Aquaculture: Global Certification, National Standards, Local Cooperatives, Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 13, (4), 373-397.
Pham Thi Anh Ngoc, Miranda P.M. Meuwissen, Tru Cong Le, Roel H. Bosma, Johan Verreth and Alfons Oude Lansink (2016). Adoption of recirculating aquaculture systems in large pangasius farms: A choice experiment, Aquaculture, 460, 90-97.
Phan Lam T., Tam M. Bui, Thuy T.T. Nguyen, Geoff J. Gooley, Brett A. Ingram, Hao V. Nguyen, Phuong T. Nguyen, Sena S. De Silva (2009). Current status of farming practices of striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Aquaculture 296: 227–236
Poulsen, A. F. et al. 2001. Fish migrations and spawning habits in the Mekong mainstream - A survey using local knowledge. Assessment of Mekong Fisheries: Fish Migrations and Spawning and the Impact of Water Management Project (AMFC) Vientiane, Lao P.D.R. February. 132 p.
Poulsen, A., Griffiths, D., Nam, S. & Nguyen, T.T. 2008. Capture-based aquaculture of Pangasiid catfishes and snakeheads in the Mekong river basin. In A. Lovatelli & P.F. Holthus (eds.), Capture-based aquaculture. Global overview. pp. 83-105. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 508. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Singh A.K. and Lakra W.S. (2012). Culture of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus into India: Impacts and present Scenario. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 15(1):19-26 IISN 1028-8880 / DOI 10.3923/pjbs.2012.19.26.
Trang T. Nhu, Thomas Schaubroeck, Patrik J.G. Henriksson, Roel Bosma, Patrick Sorgeloos and Jo Dewulf (2016). Environmental impact of non-certified versus certified (ASC) intensive Pangasius aquaculture in Vietnam, a comparison based on a statistically supported LCA, Environmental Pollution, 219, 156-165.
Trieu Ngoc Tran Thi, Nguyen Thanh Phong (2015.The impact of climate change on salinity intrusion and Pangasius (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) farming in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Aquaculture International 23(2): 523-534
Van Rijn, J. (2013) Waste treatment in recirculating aquaculture systems. Aquacultural Engineering, 53, 49–56.
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Welcomme, R. L., and C. Vidthayanon. 2000. The impacts of introductions and stocking of exotic species in the Mekong basin and policies for their control. Mekong River Commission Fisheries Programme, Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Mekong Basin II, Component Report 4. Vientiane, Lao PDR. 69 p.

Biology

DESCRIPTION

In the wild, the striped catfish is a riverine freshwater species which is highly migratory travelling long-distance over several hundred kilometres (potamodromous – migrating within freshwater only).

Striped catfish has a long, laterally flattened body without scales, six branched dorsal-fin rays, and an adipose and opposite anal fin which are dark grey or black and each fin having a dark stripe in the middle. Its head is relatively small with a broad mouth having small sharp teeth, relatively large eyes and two pairs of barbels, the upper shorter than the lower, and each with a dark stripe in the middle. Young fish have a black stripe along the lateral line and another long black stripe below the lateral line; large adults are uniformly grey but sometimes with greenish tint and silvery sides. The gill rakers are normally developed: the small interspersed with larger ones.

ECOSYSTEM ROLE

Information on the biology of this fish especially from the wild is very limited.

Striped catfish is omnivorous.

Striped catfish have both well-developed gills and a modified swim bladder which functions as an air-breathing organ and thus it is an obligate air breather. This enables the fish to tolerate poor water quality, including high organic matter or low dissolved oxygen levels, and, in aquaculture, they can therefore be stocked at high densities.

HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION

Striped catfish originated from a small geographical area, namely the basins of the Mekong River and the Chao Phraya River. However, it has recently been translocated to other areas such as Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, India, Myanmar, China and Indonesia, primarily for aquaculture.

This species is benthopelagic, typically living within the ranges of pH 6.5-7.5 and 22-26 °C. However, after introductions to several tropical countries, temperature tolerance has widened and it endures higher temperatures, but any temperature below 16°C is fatal. The adult fish can also tolerate salinity (0.7% to 1% salt) and thus can be cultivated even in brackish water.

GROWTH, REPRODUCTION AND DIET

The species is a large, fecund, relatively fast-growing fish particularly in captive conditions. At first maturity, the fish attains approximately 3.5 kg or 60 cm; and produces approximately 112,000 to 138,000 eggs per kilogram body weight and maximum measured fecundity is 2,000,000.

Mature fish can reach a maximum standard total length of 130 cm and up to 44 kg in weight. Females take at least three years to reach sexual maturity in captivity (being then over 3 kg in weight), while males often mature in their second year, probably taking about the same time in the wild. A mature 10 kg female can spawn over one million eggs.

Wild broodstock typically spawn twice annually but in cages in Viet Nam spawning has been recorded a second time at 6 to 17 weeks after the first spawning (Van Zalinge et al. 2002). In the wild, spawning adults migrate upstream each year at the beginning of the flood season. The spawning habitat consists of rapids and sandbanks interspersed with deep rocky channels and pools. The eggs are sticky and are deposited on submerged vegetation or onto the exposed root systems of tree species living in fast flowing water.

In the wild, emerging fry disperse downstream with the rising flood waters. The eggs hatch within 24 hours and they start feeding after two or three days. After having developed into fry and fingerlings, they are pelagic and are capable of independent movement.

In the wild, the omnivorous striped catfish feeds on algae, higher plants, zooplankton, and insects, while larger specimens also take fruit, crustaceans and fish. In aquacuture, it accepts trash fish, pellets, home-made feed formulated from agro- and fishery by-products, water plants and even animal and human wastes when cultured in ponds and cages.

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GUIDE TO FURTHER READING

Note: Details of all sources are given in References below.

For the species description see Hogan and colleagues (2007), Roberts and Vidthayanon (1991), and Rainboth (1996).

On the ecosystem role of striped catfish, see Ali and colleagues (2013). For studies on respiration, see Phoung and colleagues (2018) and Zheng and Liu (1988).

For habitat and distribution, see Rainboth (1996) Ali and colleagues (2013) and Castaneda and colleagues (2010). For growth and reproduction see Khanh (1996), Xuan (1994), Van Zalinge and colleagues (2002) and Singhanouvong and colleagues (1996).

REFERENCES

Ali, M.H., Haque, M. M., Belton, B., 2013. Striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus, Sauvage, 1878) aquaculture in Bangladesh: an overview. Aquaculture Research 44 (6), 950–965.
Castaneda, R., R. Montoya-Ospina, M. McGee, and M. Velasco, 2010. Pangasius juveniles tolerate moderate salinity in test. Global Aquaculture Advocate March/April 2010: 27-28.
Hogan, Z, Baird, I.G., Radtke, R. and Vander Zanden, J., 2007. Long distance migration and marine habitation in the Asian catfish Pangasius krempfi. Journal of Fish Biology 71: 818-832.
Khanh, P.V., 1996. Induced spawning of river catfish Pangasius hypophthalmus in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam. Doctoral thesis, University of Fisheries, Nha Trang, Viet Nam (in Vietnamese).
Phuong Le My, Do Thi Thanh Huong, Hans Malte, Jens Randel Nyengaard, Mark Bayley (2018), Ontogeny and morphometrics of the gills and swim bladder of air-breathing striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus. Journal of Experimental Biology 2018 221: jeb168658 doi: 10.1242/jeb.168658 Published 1 February 2018
Rainboth, W. J., 1996. Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong. FAO species identification sheets for fishery purposes. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. 265 pp.
Roberts, T.R. & Vidthayanon, C., 1991. Systematic revision of the Asian catfish family Pangasiidae, with biological observations and descriptions of three new species. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 143:97-144.
Singhanouvong, D., Soulignavong, C., Vonghachak, K., Saadsy, B. and Warren, T.J. 1996. The main wetseason migration through Hoo Som Yai, a steep-gradient channel at the great fault line on the Mekong River, Champassack Province, Southern Lao PDR. Indigenous Fishery Development Project, Fisheries Ecology Technical Report No. 4.. Technical Section, Dept. of Livestock-Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture- Forestry, Lao People's Democratic Republic.
Van Zalinge, Nicolaas; Lieng Sopha, Ngor Peng Bun, Heng Kong, and John Valbo Jørgensen. 2002. Status of the Mekong Pangasianodon hypophthalmus resources, with special reference to the stock shared between Cambodia and Viet Nam. MRC Technical Paper No. 1, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 29 pp. ISSN: 1683-1489
Xuan, T.T., 1994. Some biological characteristics and artificial reproduction of river catfish. Research Institute for Aquaculture, Saigon.
Zheng W, B. and Liu W. S., 1988. Morphology and histology of the swimbladder and infrastructure of respiratory epithelium in the air‐breathing catfish, Pangasius sutchi (Pangasiidae). Journal of Fish Biology Volume 33, Issue 1, 147-154.